When it comes to selecting materials for a particular application, one of the key factors to consider is the durability of the materials. Durability refers to the ability of a material to withstand wear, pressure, or damage over time.
Choosing materials with high durability is crucial for ensuring the longevity and reliability of a product. For example, in construction projects, materials that are exposed to harsh weather conditions or heavy loads need to be able to withstand these challenges without deteriorating or breaking down.
There are various factors that can affect the durability of materials, such as their chemical composition, structure, and processing methods. For example, materials that are resistant to corrosion, abrasion, or fatigue are often preferred for applications where durability is a priority.
In addition to considering the inherent properties of materials, it is also important to take into account the environmental conditions in which they will be used. For example, materials that are exposed to high temperatures, humidity, or UV radiation may require special treatments or coatings to enhance their durability.
Overall, the durability of materials plays a critical role in determining the performance and lifespan of a product. By carefully considering this factor during the material selection process, engineers and designers can ensure that their products will meet the necessary requirements and stand the test of time.
When it comes to material selection in design, aesthetics play a crucial role in determining the overall look and feel of a product. Aesthetics refer to the visual appeal and attractiveness of a design, and the choice of materials can greatly impact this aspect.
Design considerations also come into play when selecting materials for a project. Factors such as durability, cost, availability, and environmental impact must be taken into account when choosing the right materials for a design. It is important to strike a balance between aesthetics and functionality to create a successful design.
Materials can vary greatly in terms of their visual appearance, texture, and color. Different materials can evoke different emotions and perceptions, so it is essential to carefully consider how the chosen materials will contribute to the overall design aesthetic. For example, a sleek and modern design may call for materials such as glass or metal, while a more natural and organic look may be achieved with wood or stone.
In addition to aesthetics, practical considerations such as strength, flexibility, and ease of manufacturing should also be taken into account when selecting materials for a design. The selected materials should be able to withstand the intended use and environment of the product, while still maintaining the desired aesthetic.
Overall, material selection is a crucial aspect of design that requires careful consideration of both aesthetics and practicality. By choosing the right materials, designers can create products that are not only visually appealing but also functional and durable.
When considering material selection for any project, it is essential to take into account the maintenance requirements of the chosen materials. Maintenance requirements refer to the level of care and attention a material will need to ensure its longevity and functionality over time.
Different materials have varying maintenance needs, depending on factors such as the environment they will be exposed to, the level of wear and tear they will endure, and the desired lifespan of the project. For example, materials like wood may require regular sealing or staining to protect against moisture and rot, while metals may need to be treated to prevent corrosion.
It is crucial to consider maintenance requirements during the material selection process to avoid future issues and costs. Neglecting to account for maintenance needs can result in premature deterioration of the materials, leading to repairs or replacements sooner than expected.
By carefully evaluating the maintenance requirements of different materials, project planners can choose the most suitable options that align with their desired level of upkeep and longevity. This consideration can ultimately result in a more durable and cost-effective project in the long run.
Cost analysis is an important aspect of material selection when it comes to making decisions about which materials to use for a particular project. The cost of materials can have a significant impact on the overall budget and profitability of a project, so it is essential to carefully consider all of the costs involved.
When conducting a cost analysis for material selection, it is important to consider not just the initial cost of the materials, but also any additional costs that may be associated with using those materials. This can include transportation costs, installation costs, maintenance costs, and even disposal costs if the materials need to be replaced at some point in the future.
It is also important to consider the long-term costs of using a particular material. While a cheaper material may save money upfront, it may end up costing more in the long run if it needs to be replaced or repaired more frequently than a higher-quality, but more expensive, material.
In addition to considering the cost of the materials themselves, it is also important to consider the cost of any potential savings that may be associated with using certain materials. For example, using energy-efficient materials may result in lower energy costs over time, which can offset the initial higher cost of those materials.
Overall, conducting a thorough cost analysis for material selection is essential for making informed decisions that will not only help keep the project on budget, but also ensure that the materials chosen are of high quality and will provide long-term value.
A synthetic fence, plastic fence or (when made of vinyl) vinyl or PVC fence is a fence made using synthetic plastics, such as vinyl (PVC), polypropylene,[2] nylon,[3] polythene (polyethylene) ASA, or from various recycled plastics. Composites of two or more plastics can also be used to increase strength and UV stability of a fence. Synthetic fencing was first introduced to the agricultural industry in the 1980s as low-cost, durable horse fencing. Now, synthetic fencing is used for agricultural fencing, horse race track running rail, and residential use. Synthetic fencing is generally available preformed, in a wide variety of styles. It tends to be easy to clean, resists weathering and has low maintenance requirements. However, it also can be more expensive than comparable materials, and cheaper products can be less sturdy than more traditional fence materials. Some types may become brittle, faded or degrade in quality after long exposure to extreme hot or cold conditions. Recently, titanium dioxide (TiO2) and other UV stabilisers have proven to be a beneficial additives in the manufacturing process of vinyl. This has greatly improved the durability of vinyl by providing essential UV protection from the sun's harmful rays, preventing premature ageing and cracking of the product, making it more durable than other materials such as wood.[4]
Synthetic materials used for residential fences can be in a solid cast form, or a reinforced hollow rail design that resembles sawn timber, Most commonly extruded profiles. Higher quality vinyl fence components are ribbed or include reinforcements, often of aluminium, for added strength. For agricultural use, synthetic fencing can consist of a heavy synthetic strapping product inlaid with cable, synthetic-coated high-tensile wire, or a synthetic coating over a wood or metal rail or plank. Residential synthetic fencing products are usually hollow, and thus too fragile to contain livestock, but some designs may be suitable for containing dogs or other pets. Residential grade rails are also made of a thinner material.
Synthetic fences are used as the side-rails along horse racecourses, because they make a good visual barrier for the horses, but are unlikely to cause injury if horses break through them.
Synthetic fence profiles are made in a wide range of sizes and shapes. They come in many different colors which are integrated during the extrusion process, which means they do not require painting. Usually this ability to resist discoloration leads many manufacturers to offer very long warranties, from decades up to "lifetime" for some brands.
Synthetic fence posts are placed into pre-dug holes, or sometimes the synthetic post is fitted over a pre-set post of wood, rebar, or pipe for additional sturdiness. Rails or pickets are inserted into specifically designed slots and grooves within the rails.
Synthetic fence materials are often in the form of rigid rails or posts, but flexible forms are also used, including mesh for hazard fencing or deer fencing, or string, rope or tape of polypropylene interwoven with stainless steel wires for electric fences ("electric braid").
A swimming pool fence is a type of fence placed around swimming pools, to create a passive barrier to restrict the access of small children to the swimming pool. Swimming pool fences must have a self-closing and self-latching gate/s to be compliant to most countries' laws and codes.
Swimming pool fences are designed so that young children cannot climb over them or go through them. They are manufactured to strict standards to be sturdy, durable and non-climbable.
Most countries design, manufacture and install swimming pool fences to the International Code Councils (ICC) guidelines.
Swimming pool fences are manufactured in several different types, using a variety of materials.
They can be slotted to allow visibility or solid for privacy.
Countries, states and municipalities within countries have different laws regarding swimming pool fencing laws, ranging from no laws at all to very strict laws and inspection programmes.
Starting from 2010 all states and territories in Australia are in various stages of reviewing their swimming pool fencing laws, requiring swimming pools to be registered with a state body and the implementation of a timed swimming pool barrier inspection program. All swimming pool barrier fencing must comply with Australian Standard for Swimming Pool Fencing (AS1926). Although some states and territories have particular laws and regulations, there are some stipulations that need to be abided by right across the nation. These include ensuring the pool fencing is 1200 mm high, with a gap of 100 mm or less at the bottom or between the newels. There should be no climbable objects within 900 mm of the pool fencing, and gates should be built so that they swing away from the pool, with a child safety lock.
The gate should be fitted with hinges that are self closing, and are able to do so from a stationary position without any manual force applied. Once closed, the gate should automatically lock and should not be able to be opened again with force unless the latch is manually opened. The gap between the gate panel and the latching panel should be less than 10 mm.
The Queensland state of Australia has very strict laws by world standards. On 1 December 2010 legislation was implemented that will see all swimming pool barriers in the state inspected and issued with a compliance certificate by 30 November 2015.
Swimming pools be surrounded by a four-sided compliant barrier (using the home as one side of the barrier was outlawed) with a minimum height of 1200 mm (48 inches) from permanent ground level and have non-climbable zones of 900 mm (36 inches) in a 180 degree arc measured from the top of the barrier. For non-climbable zones to be compliant there must not be any objects that are more than 10 mm (0.5 inch) in depth and width in the non-climbable zone. Gates are to be self-closing, self latching and not able to be sprung open when a 25 kg (55 pound) downward force is applied to the bottom of the gate.[1]
All swimming pools in Queensland are required to be registered with the Pool Safety Council. All properties leased or sold must have a swimming pool compliance certificate.[2] Short term accommodation providers and shared swimming pools must be inspected every two years. Licensed private swimming pool inspectors inspect swimming pool barriers and issue pool safety compliance certificates.
In 2013 there were 326,000 registered swimming pools in Queensland and 796 active private inspectors.
New South Wales is the only Australian state or territory to require that infinity or drop edge pools have fencing greater than the standard 1200 mm height requirement. Changes to the NSW legislation state that from 29 April 2016, NSW residential properties with a swimming pool or spa pool must have a certificate of compliance, a certificate of non-compliance or an occupation certificate for the pool barrier/fencing before the property can be leased or sold.[3]
There is no federal pool fence law currently in place within the United States. However, several states, including Florida[4] and Arizona,[5] have created their own individual pool fence laws. In 2017, the National Safety Council released a report ranking state laws on public pool and water facility regulations as well as four-sided residential pool fencing.[6]
The Association of Pool & Spa Professionals has developed a model barrier code for residential swimming pools, spas, and hot tubs; this code has been approved by the American National Standards Institute.
The International Code Council (I.C.C.), more often known by their former name, the Building Officials and Code Administrators (B.O.C.A.), outlined strong safety standards for swimming pool fences. In an effort to eliminate or reduce the accidental drowning of children, these standards have been recognized by many communities throughout the world. Certain states are more strict with their laws and the most populated states with Pools such as Arizona, California, Florida, and Texas have special statutes in place that discuss all pool fencing types including frameless glass railings. Above ground pools must also follow state and local pool codes if the water is at least 18 inches deep.
In 2006, 283 children under the age of five drowned in swimming pools in the United States.
The I.C.C. pool safety standards specify that:[7]
France was the first European country to introduce swimming pool barrier compliance regulations, applying from 1 May 2004. Failure to comply can result in a €45,000 fine. Spain publicly reported that they would soon follow suit.[citation needed]
Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa also have swimming pool fencing laws.[citation needed]
Season 11 of Curb Your Enthusiasm prominently features Larry David's attempt to have a pool fence regulation repealed. After a burglar drowns in Larry's pool, the police inform Larry he must have a five-foot (1.5 m) fence around his pool due to a Santa Monica, California, regulation. The burglar's brother attempts to extort Larry, who responds by beginning a relationship with an unpleasant and unattractive city councilwoman in order to persuade her to repeal the law. In reality, Santa Monica has no such pool fence regulation.
A fence is a structure that encloses an area, typically outdoors creating a boundary, and is usually constructed from posts that are connected by boards, wire, rails or netting.[1] A fence differs from a wall in not having a solid foundation along its whole length.[2]
Alternatives to fencing include a ditch (sometimes filled with water, forming a moat).
A balustrade or railing is a fence to prevent people from falling over an edge, most commonly found on a stairway, landing, or balcony. Railing systems and balustrades are also used along roofs, bridges, cliffs, pits, and bodies of water.
Another aim of using a fence is to limit intrusion. In support of these barriers there are sophisticated technologies that can be applied on the fence itself to strengthen the defence of an area, such as:
In most developed areas the use of fencing is regulated, variously in commercial, residential, and agricultural areas. Height, material, setback, and aesthetic issues are among the considerations subject to regulation.
The following types of areas or facilities often are required by law to be fenced in, for safety and security reasons:
Servitudes[6] are legal arrangements of land use arising out of private agreements. Under the feudal system, most land in England was cultivated in common fields, where peasants were allocated strips of arable land that were used to support the needs of the local village or manor. By the sixteenth century the growth of population and prosperity provided incentives for landowners to use their land in more profitable ways, dispossessing the peasantry. Common fields were aggregated and enclosed by large and enterprising farmers—either through negotiation among one another or by lease from the landlord—to maximize the productivity of the available land and contain livestock. Fences redefined the means by which land is used, resulting in the modern law of servitudes.[7]
In the United States, the earliest settlers claimed land by simply fencing it in. Later, as the American government formed, unsettled land became technically owned by the government and programs to register land ownership developed, usually making raw land available for low prices or for free, if the owner improved the property, including the construction of fences. However, the remaining vast tracts of unsettled land were often used as a commons, or, in the American West, "open range" as degradation of habitat developed due to overgrazing and a tragedy of the commons situation arose, common areas began to either be allocated to individual landowners via mechanisms such as the Homestead Act and Desert Land Act and fenced in, or, if kept in public hands, leased to individual users for limited purposes, with fences built to separate tracts of public and private land.[8]
Ownership of a fence on a boundary varies. The last relevant original title deed(s) and a completed seller's property information form may document which side has to put up and has installed any fence respectively; the first using "T" marks/symbols (the side with the "T" denotes the owner);[9] the latter by a ticked box to the best of the last owner's belief with no duty, as the conventionally agreed conveyancing process stresses, to make any detailed, protracted enquiry.[10] Commonly the mesh or panelling is in mid-position. Otherwise it tends to be on non-owner's side so the fence owner might access the posts when repairs are needed but this is not a legal requirement.[11] Where estate planners wish to entrench privacy a close-boarded fence or equivalent well-maintained hedge of a minimum height may be stipulated by deed. Beyond a standard height planning permission is necessary.
Where a rural fence or hedge has (or in some cases had) an adjacent ditch, the ditch is normally in the same ownership as the hedge or fence, with the ownership boundary being the edge of the ditch furthest from the fence or hedge.[12] The principle of this rule is that an owner digging a boundary ditch will normally dig it up to the very edge of their land, and must then pile the spoil on their own side of the ditch to avoid trespassing on their neighbour. They may then erect a fence or hedge on the spoil, leaving the ditch on its far side. Exceptions exist in law, for example where a plot of land derives from subdivision of a larger one along the centre line of a previously existing ditch or other feature, particularly where reinforced by historic parcel numbers with acreages beneath which were used to tally up a total for administrative units not to confirm the actual size of holdings, a rare instance where Ordnance Survey maps often provide more than circumstantial evidence namely as to which feature is to be considered the boundary.
On private land in the United Kingdom, it is the landowner's responsibility to fence their livestock in.[13] Conversely, for common land, it is the surrounding landowners' duty to fence the common's livestock out such as in large parts of the New Forest. Large commons with livestock roaming have been greatly reduced by 18th and 19th century Acts for enclosure of commons covering most local units,[14] with most remaining such land in the UK's National Parks.
A 19th-century law requires railways to be fenced to keep people and livestock out.[15] It is also illegal to trespass on railways, incurring a fine of up to £1000.
Distinctly different land ownership and fencing patterns arose in the eastern and western United States. Original fence laws on the east coast were based on the British common law system, and rapidly increasing population quickly resulted in laws requiring livestock to be fenced in. In the west, land ownership patterns and policies reflected a strong influence of Spanish law and tradition, plus the vast land area involved made extensive fencing impractical until mandated by a growing population and conflicts between landowners. The "open range" tradition of requiring landowners to fence out unwanted livestock was dominant in most of the rural west until very late in the 20th century.[16] Even today, a few isolated regions of the west still use the open range system.[17] More recently, fences are generally constructed on the surveyed property line as precisely as possible. Today, across the nation, each state can develop its own laws regarding fences. In many cases for both rural and urban property owners, the laws were designed to require adjacent landowners to share the responsibility for maintaining a common boundary fenceline, for example in California.[18] Today, however, only 22 states have retained that provision. In Texas a landowner has no legal obligation to share in the costs or future maintenance of a fence built by his or her neighbor, unless previously agreed. There is no specific statutes but court cases have set this legal precedent.[19]
Some U.S. states, including Texas, Illinois, Missouri, and North Carolina, have enacted laws establishing that purple paint markings on fences (or trees) are the legal equivalent of "No Trespassing" signs. The laws are meant to spare landowners, particularly in rural areas, from having to continually replace printed signs that often end up being stolen or obliterated by the elements.[20]
Along the shores of Lake Balaton, reed fences are often used to separate holiday cottages.
The value of fences and the metaphorical significance of a fence, both positive and negative, has been extensively utilized throughout western culture. A few examples include:
Notes
Bibliography